Article summary
Abstract
This paper explores the Bhakti and Sufi movements in medieval India as dynamic religious and socio-cultural phenomena that transcended doctrinal boundaries and hierarchical structures. While traditionally viewed as expressions of devotional mysticism and religious syncretism, recent scholarship urges a more nuanced interpretation that considers their roles as vehicles of social critique and resistance. Spanning the 12th to 17th centuries, these movements provided accessible spiritual alternatives to the orthodoxy of Brahmanical Hinduism and Islamic clericalism. Through vernacular poetry, public rituals, and communitybased worship, saints such as Kabir, Mirabai, Ravidas, Bulleh Shah, and Nizamuddin Auliya voiced egalitarian ideals and challenged caste, gender, and religious exclusivism. The study draws on postcolonial, subaltern, and syncretic theoretical frameworks to analyze whether Bhakti and Sufi practices served as spiritual unifiers or socio-political dissenters—or both. It further engages with contemporary interpretations of these traditions, particularly in light of their appropriation by identity politics and their role in interfaith dialogue. By critically examining literary texts, hagiographies, and historical scholarship, this paper argues that syncretism and protest were not mutually exclusive but often coexisted as parallel strategies of resistance and inclusion. The enduring legacy of these movements lies in their continued influence on India’s pluralistic ethos, cultural production, and ongoing struggles for social justice.